Link-age.eu

Free Radical Research, December 2006; 40(12): 1230–1238 Theories of biological aging: Genes, proteins, and free radicals Laboratory of Cellular Ageing, Department of Molecular Biology, Danish Centre for Molecular Gerontology, University ofAarhus, Aarhus-C, Denmark AbstractTraditional categorization of theories of aging into programmed and stochastic ones is outdated and obsolete. Biological agingis considered to occur mainly during the period of survival beyond the natural or essential lifespan (ELS) in Darwinian terms.
Organisms survive to achieve ELS by virtue of genetically determined longevity assuring maintenance and repair systems(MRS). Aging at the molecular level is characterized by the progressive accumulation of molecular damage caused byenvironmental and metabolically generated free radicals, by spontaneous errors in biochemical reactions, and by nutritionalcomponents. Damages in the MRS and other pathways lead to age-related failure of MRS, molecular heterogeneity, cellulardysfunctioning, reduced stress tolerance, diseases and ultimate death. A unified theory of biological aging in terms of failure ofhomeodynamics comprising of MRS, and involving genes, milieu and chance, is acquiring a definitive shape and wideracceptance. Such a theory also establishes the basis for testing and developing effective means of intervention, prevention andmodulation of aging.
Keywords: Biogerontology, gerontogenes, molecular damage, stress, homeostasis, homeodynamics, hormesis, anti-aging Abbreviations: FR, free radicals; ROS, reactive oxygen species; ELS, essential lifespan highly variable in different species, in organismswithin a species, in organs and tissues within an In a frequently cited paper from 1990, Zhores organism, in cell types within a tissue, in sub-cellular Medvedev had attempted to make a rational classifi- compartments within a cell type, and in macromol- cation of theories of aging [1]. He counted more than ecules within a cell. These observations necessarily 300 theories, none of which could qualify as being the lead to the conclusion that aging has no universal theory of aging, and all of them could be, at best, cause, phenotype, and consequence, except death.
labeled as “hypotheses” or “aspect theories”. Over the However, the above conclusion does not imply that years, gerontologists have become resigned to the there cannot be any satisfactory, rational and scientific futility of formulating a unified theory of aging which explanations for the origin, occurrence, progression can encompass its evolutionary, biological, and and consequences of aging, and that aging is an sociological aspects. The main reason for the unsolved or unsolvable problem in biology. To the emergence of this pessimistic view is that the large contrary, as reasserted by Robin Holliday in his body of descriptive data in gerontology underlines the recently published article titled “Aging is No Longer multifaceted, diverse and complex nature of aging.
an Unsolved Problem in Biology” [2], the biological Most significantly, it has been clearly shown that the basis of aging are well understood, and important phenotype and the rate of progression of aging are general principles of aging and longevity can be Correspondence: S. Rattan, Department of Molecular Biology, University of Aarhus, Gustav Wieds Vej 10C, DK8000 Aarhus-C, Denmark.
Tel: 45 8942 5034. Fax: 45 8612 3178. E-mail: [email protected] ISSN 1071-5762 print/ISSN 1029-2470 online q 2006 Informa UK Ltd.
DOI: 10.1080/10715760600911303 derived, which can be the basis for future research systems, tissues, cells, organelles and macromolecules.
and intervention towards achieving a healthy old age Therefore, a major challenge for any theory of biological aging is to provide mechanistic explanationsfor the origin and occurrence of both “universal” and“specific” age-related changes, also termed “public” and “private” mechanisms, respectively [13] The evolutionary “life history principle” describes Since the biological bases of all aging systems reside aging as an emergent phenomenon that takes place in the optimal functioning of molecules within a cell, it primarily in protected environments which allow is useful to recapitulate what molecular changes survival beyond the natural lifespan in the wild. The happen during aging. Observational and descriptive natural lifespan of a species, termed “essential studies performed on a large variety of aging systems lifespan” (ELS) [4,7], or the “warranty period” [8], have demonstrated that the main molecular charac- is the time required to fulfill the Darwinian purpose of teristic of aging is the progressive accumulation of life in terms of successful reproduction for the damages in macromolecules. Although different types continuation of generations. Species that undergo of molecular damage accumulate at different rates and fast maturation and have an early onset of reproduc- to different extents in different cells, the fact remains tion with large reproductive potential generally have a that there is a progressive increase in molecular short ELS, whereas slow maturation, late onset of heterogeneity with age. Table I gives a list of major reproduction, and small reproductive potential of a categories of age-related damage in macromolecules, species is concurrent with its long ELS. For example, which have been observed during various cells, tissues the ELS of Drosophila is less than a week as compared with that of about 50 years of Homo sapiens, even It is obvious that all small and big molecules are though in protected environments (laboratories and prone to damage, but the source and biological modern societies, respectively), a large proportion of consequences of various molecular damage may vary populations of both species can and do live for much widely, thus increasingly creating molecular hetero- longer than that. Therefore, from an evolutionary geneity. Furthermore, although the action of a point of view, ELS is the canvas against which the damaging agent is essentially stochastic, the vulner- genetic selection and functional optimization unfold.
ability of a macromolecule to the damaging agent may (The biochemical and physiological basis of ELS will be be dependent on its chemical sequence, structure and accessibility in the presence of several other interactive While detailed arguments about evolutionary macromolecules. It is not simple to relate any explanations for the origin and occurrence of aging particular kind of damage and its levels in the cells can be accessed in extensive writings of several authors to a specific biological consequence, especially aging, (for example, see [9 – 12]), here it may be sufficient to point out that from evolutionary, biological and lifehistory points of view, aging is considered to set in and manifest mainly during the period of extended survivalbeyond ELS.
There are three major sources of damage within a cell:(1) reactive oxygen species (ROS) and free radicals(FR) formed due to external inducers of damage (for example ultra-violet rays), and as a consequence of Biogerontologists and geriatric pathologists have cellular metabolism involving oxygen, metals and other gleaned a wealth of information regarding age-related metabolites; (2) nutritional glucose and its metabolites, changes at all levels of biological organization. While and their biochemical interactions with ROS; and several of these age-related normal and pathological (3) spontaneous errors in biochemical processes, such changes may be widely observed across species, other as DNA duplication, transcription, post-transcrip- changes are specific to specific species, organs, tional processing, translation, and post-translational Main categories of molecular damage occurring during cellular aging.
Mutations, epimutations, base modifications, Base modifications, miscoding, missplicing Amino acid modifications, misincorporation, Carbohydrates, lipids, and molecular conjugates modifications. The so-called mechanistic theories of Further evidence in support of PETA comes from biological aging have often focused on a single category experiments which showed that an induction and of inducers of molecular damage as an explanation for increase in protein errors can accelerate aging in possible mechanisms of aging. Of these, two theories human cells and bacteria [19,38,39,43,44]. Similarly, which have been the basis of most of the experimental an increase in the accuracy of protein synthesis can biogerontology research are the free radical- and the slow aging and increase the lifespan in fungi [45 – 47].
protein error-theories of aging. Although neither of Therefore, it is not ruled out that several kinds of them can be considered to be the complete theory of errors in various components of protein synthetic biological aging, their contributions in providing a solid machinery, including tRNA charging, and in mito- scientific footing to experimental aging research and chondria do have long term effects on cellular stability anti-aging interventions cannot be overestimated.
and survival [48 – 51]. However, almost all thesemethods have relied on indirect in vitro assays, and sofar direct, realistic and accurate estimates of age- related changes in errors in cytoplasmic and mito- FRTA, proposed in 1956, arose from a consideration chondrial proteins, and their biological relevance, of the aging phenomenon from the premise that a have not been made. Similarly, applying methods such single common biochemical process may be respon- as two-dimensional gel electrophoresis, which can sible for the aging and death of all living beings (for an resolve only some kinds of mis-incorporations, have so update, see [31]). There is abundant evidence to show far remained insensitive and inconclusive [19,38,39].
that a variety of ROS and other FR are indeed involved It will be necessary to combine several methods, such in the occurrence of molecular damage which can lead as electrophoresis, mass-spectrometry, protein-pro- to structural and functional disorders, diseases and tein interactions and antibody-based detection of death. The chemistry and biochemistry of FR is very molecular heterogeneity to find out the extent of well worked out, and the cellular and organismic protein errors and their biological role in aging.
consequences are well documented [32]. However,the main criticisms raised against this theory are with From FRTA and PETA to higher order theories respect to its lack of incorporation of the essential andbeneficial role of FR in the normal functioning and survival of biological systems [33,34]. Additionally, mechanisms for the occurrence of molecular damage.
FRTA presents FR as the universal cause of damage Additionally, nutritional components, specially the without taking into account the differences in the wide sugars and metal-based micronutrients can induce, range of FR-counteracting mechanisms in different enhance and amplify the molecular damage either species. Furthermore, a large body of data showing the independently or in combination with other inducers contrary and/or lack of predictable and expected of damage. The biological consequences of increased beneficial results of anti-oxidant and FR-scavenging levels of molecular damage are wide ranging and therapies have restricted the FRTA to being only a include altered gene expression, genomic instability, partial explanation of some of the observed changes mutations, molecular heterogeneity, loss of cell division potential, cell death, impaired intercellularcommunication, tissue disorganization, organ dys-functions, and increased vulnerability to stress and other sources of disturbance. Historically, each of The history of PETA, also known as the error these biological consequences has been used as the catastrophe theory, is full of controversy and basis of putting forward other theories of aging, such premature declaration of its demise [19,38,39].
as replicative senescence theory, neuroendocrine Since the spontaneous error frequency in protein theory, pineal gland theory, immunological theory translation is generally several orders of magnitude higher than that in DNA replication and RNAtranscription, the role of protein errors and their Genetics, post-genetics and epigenetics of aging feedback in biochemical pathways has been con-sidered to be a crucial one with respect to aging.
Since all molecular processes in a living system are Several attempts have been made to determine the based in and regulated by genes, an attractive research accuracy of translation in cell-free extracts, and most strategy has been to discover genes for aging, termed of the studies show that there is an age-related increase gerontogenes [53 – 55]. However, the evolutionary in the mis-incorporation of nucleotides and amino explanation for the origin of aging and limited lifespan acids [19,38,39]. It has also been shown that there is discussed above have generally ruled out the notion of an age-related accumulation of aberrant DNA any specific genetic programme involving specific polymerases and other components of the transcrip- gerontogenes. But a lack of specific gerontogenes with tional and translational machinery [19,38 – 42].
the sole purpose of causing aging and terminating the lifespan of an individual does not imply that genes do for life to exist. “Epigenetics” is the most commonly used not or cannot influence survival, longevity and the rate term to account for and to explain the consequences of the intracellular and extracellular milieu which establish There is ample evidence from studies performed on and influence the structural and functional stability of yeast and other fungi, nematodes, insects, rodents and genes [2,70]. These epigenetic effects and alterations humans that mutations in various genes can either generally remain uninherited from one generation to the prolong or shorten the lifespan, and some of these are next, but have strong deterministic effects on the health, also the cause of premature aging syndromes in survival and aging of the individual.
human beings [56 – 58]. Additionally, genetic linkage So far, there is only scanty information available studies for longevity in mice have identified major about the involvement in aging of various intracellular histocompatibility complex regions [59], and quanti- epigenetic markers such as methylated cytosines, tative trait loci on several chromosomes [60,61] as oxidatively modified nucleotides, alternatively spliced putative genes for aging. In gene association studies RNAs, and post-translationally modified proteins, with human centenarians, certain alleles of HLA locus including protein folding [71]. The full spectrum of on chromosome 6 [59], regions of chromosome 4 epigenetics of aging is yet to be unraveled and at [62], different alleles of APO-E and APO-B, and DD present is one of the most attractive and challenging genotype of angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) areas of research in biogerontology [72,73]. A major have been linked to exceptional longevity. Similarly, reason for apparent difficulties in fully understanding several other studies have reported an association the epigenetics of aging is the existence of several between human longevity and single nucleotide orders of higher complexity and diversity of the polymorphisms (SNP) in a variety of genes in various constituting components, such as physical, chemical, biological pathways, including heat shock response, biological and environmental factors, including mitochondrial functions, immune response, choles- psychological factors in human beings. Furthermore, terol metabolism and others [58,63 – 67].
in order to understand how various conditions An analysis of the various functions of the genes influence, regulate and modulate the actions, inter- associated with aging and longevity shows that these actions and networks of gene products during aging genes cover a wide range of biochemical pathways, will require new intellectual and technical tools, such such as energy metabolism, kinases, kinase receptors, as systems analysis, bioinformatics, and functional transcription factors, DNA helicases, membrane genomics involving simultaneous multiple analyses.
glucosidases, GTP-binding protein coupled receptors,chaperones, and cell cycle check point pathways [56 – 58]. What is clear from the identification of the genesinfluencing aging and longevity is that whatever their Another approach in developing a unified theory of normal function and mechanism of action may be, aging is based in the basic characteristic of biological these gerontogenes did not evolve to cause and systems called homeostasis or homeodynamics. All accumulate molecular damage, to cause functional living systems, have the intrinsic ability to respond, to disorders, and to terminate the life of the organism.
counteract and to adapt to the external and internal Most of these genes have well defined roles in sources of disturbance. The traditional conceptual normal metabolism, in intra- and inter-cellular model to describe this property is homeostasis, which signaling, and in maintenance and repair functions has dominated biology, physiology and medicine since including stress response. It is the damage-induced the 1930s. However, advances made in our under- changes in the regulation, structure and/or activity of standing of the processes of biological growth, develop- their gene products which result in their altered ment, maturation, reproduction, and finally, of aging, biological role with age. Therefore, such genes have senescence and death have led to the realization that the been termed “virtual gerontogenes” [54,68]. Further- homeostasis model as an explanation is seriously more, a lack of evolutionary selection of virtual incomplete. The main reason for the incompleteness gerontogenes has given rise to the notion of post- of the homeostasis model is its defining principle of genetics or “post-reproductive genetics” as an “stability through constancy”, which does not take into explanation for different biological roles played at account the new themes, such as cybernetics, control different ages by the same genetic variants [69].
theory, catastrophe theory, chaos theory, informationand interaction networks, that comprise and underlinethe modern biology of complexity. Since the 1990s, the term homeodynamics [74], is being increasingly used.
Although genes are the foundation of life, genes in The concept of homeodynamics accounts for the fact themselves are non functional entities. It is the wide that the internal milieu of complex biological systems is variety of gene products, including coding and non- not permanently fixed, is not at equilibrium, and coding RNAs, proteins and other macromolecules, is a dynamic regulation and interaction among various which constitute the biochemical and biophysical milieu In parallel with the development of the concept of between three fundamental features of life: (1) the homeodynamics, another term allostasis has also been basic metabolism, which includes biochemical syn- gaining recognition and use [75]. According to this thesis, respiration, cell turnover, movement, feeding, model, “stability through change” is the most realistic digestion and excretion; (2) the reproduction; and (3) situation for living systems. Allostasis model also takes the maintenance through homeodynamic machinery into account the characteristics such as reciprocal trade-offs between various cells, tissues and organs, Whereas the basic metabolism is essential for all accommodative sensing and prediction with respect to animals, the extent of investment in reproduction and the severity of a potential stressor, and the final cost of maintenance can vary between species. This is the making a response and readjustment to bring about trade-off, which is the basis of the disposable soma the necessary change. Aging, senescence and death theory of aging, between investment in maintenance are the final manifestations of unsuccessful home- and investment in reproduction, which are related odynamics or failure of allostasis [2,76].
inversely [9,34]. The evolved balance between the two Table II gives a list of the key biochemical and depends on the life history strategy and ecological physiological pathways and processes operating niche of the species. Several comparative studies have in cells, tissues and organ systems, and which are reported positive correlations between lifespan and quintessential components of the homeodynamic the ability to repair DNA, to detoxify reactive oxygen molecules, to respond and counteract stress, and to Of course, all these processes involve genes whose replace worn-out cells [7]. In addition, negative products and their interactions give rise to a “home- correlation has been demonstrated between longevity odynamic space” or the “buffering capacity”, which is and the rate of damage accumulation, including the ultimate determinant of an individual’s chance and mutations, epimutations, macromolecular oxidation ability to survive and maintain a healthy state [76]. At and aggregation of metabolic byproducts [9,34].
present, our knowledge about the number of genes The evolved nature of the homeodynamic machin- and their variants, their multiple interactions and ery, in accordance with the life history traits of consequences is too meagre to identify, define and different species, sets an intrinsic genetic limit on the manipulate the homeodynamic machinery in any ELS, as described above. Therefore, the main cause of age-related accumulation of molecular damage is the Theoretically, it may be possible to design or inefficiency and failure of maintenance, repair and engineer much better protected and better performing turnover pathways. Several theoretical and mathemat- homeodynamic processes, and thus make organismic ical models are being developed in order to under- survival extended indefinitely. However, arguments stand the interactive nature of the biological networks based on the allocation of energy and metabolic and trade-offs [103,104]. Similarly, the reliability resources (EMR) as the determinants of an organism’s theory of aging and longevity discusses the inevitable longevity and survival potential rule out such failure of complex systems such as cells and organisms simplistic interventions [9,34]. According to these [105], and reiterates the principle that no process can arguments, available EMR must be partitioned be one-hundred-percent accurate one-hundred-per-cent of the time; and it is the interactive nature ofgenes, milieu and chance that effectively determines Main pathways of maintenance and repair homeo- how long homeodynamic ability can keep a biological Implications for aging intervention, prevention According to the homeodynamics-based explanations for aging and longevity described above, occurrence of aging in the period beyond ELS, and the onset of one or more diseases before eventual death, appear to be the evolutionary “default” setting. This viewpoint makes interventions in aging different from the treatment of one or more specific diseases. Also, although single or serial replacement of non-func- tional or dysfunctional body parts with natural or synthetic parts made of more durable material may provide a temporary solution to the problems of age- related impairments, it does not modulate the underlying complex aging process as such [6].
Scientific and rational anti-aging strategies have the temperature shock, irradiation, heavy metals, pro- aim to slow down aging, to prevent and/or delay the oxidants, acetaldehyde, alcohols, hypergravity, exer- physiological decline, and to regain lost functional cise and food restriction [6,110]. Hormesis-like abilities. Strengthening, improving or enlarging the beneficial effects of episodic and chronic, but mild, homeodynamic space or the buffer capacity at the undernutrition have been reported for human beings.
level of all genes comprising the homeodynamic Intermittent fasting has been reported to have machinery of an individual may be the ideal anti-aging beneficial effects on glucose metabolism and neuronal remedy. However, such a gene-therapy approach for resistance to injury. Although at present there are only gerontomodulation requires redesigning the blueprint a few studies performed which utilize mild stress as a for structural and functional units of the body at the modulator of aging and longevity, hormesis can be a level of genes, gene products, macromolecular useful experimental approach in biogerontology.
interactions, molecular-milieu interactions, and soon. Considering how little information and knowledgewe have at present about all those interacting variants of genes, molecules, milieu and chance, it is not clear Living systems survive by virtue of a set of defensive what this approach really means in practical and maintenance and repair systems which comprise their homeodynamic ability. A large number of interacting Improving the milieu in which the homeodynamic genes and genetic networks constitute this machinery, machinery operates is the other strategy that is being the exact details of which are yet to be unravelled.
followed by the majority of the practitioners of the so- Successful homeodynamics is crucial for the growth, called anti-aging medicine. Some of the main development and maturation of an organism until the approaches are supplementation with hormones reproduction and continuation of generations is including growth hormone, dehydroepiandrosterone, assured. Homeodynamics is thus a longevity assur- melatonin and estrogen, and nutritional supplemen- ance mechanism, whose strength, efficiency and range tation with synthetic and natural antioxidants in have evolved in accordance with the evolutionary purified form or in extracts prepared from plant and history of the species. Survival beyond the ELS of a animal sources [5]. Although some of these species is necessarily accompanied by the progressive approaches have been shown to have some clinical accumulation of random molecular damage. The benefits in the treatment of some diseases in the progressive failure of homeodynamics leads to the elderly, none of these really modulate the aging physiological malfunctioning manifested as a general process itself. Furthermore, claims for the benefits of functional decline, diseases and ultimate death. A intake of high doses of vitamins and various unified theory of biological aging involving genes, antioxidants and their supposed anti-aging and life- milieu and chance is emerging, maturing and prolonging effects have very little scientific evidence to acquiring a definitive shape, and can be the basis of back them [6,106]. In contrast to this, nutritional aging intervention, prevention and modulation.
modulation through caloric restriction (CR) has beenshown to be an effective anti-aging and longevityextending approach in rodents and monkeys, with possible applications to human beings. But, this is ahighly debatable issue at present both in terms of the Laboratory of Cellular Ageing (LCA) is supported by practicalities of defining CR and of applying CR in grants from the Danish Research Councils (FNU and human beings in physiological and evolutionary FSS), EU-Biomed programme “Proteomage”, and A more realistic and promising approach in aging intervention and prevention is based in making use ofan organism’s intrinsic homeodynamic property of self maintenance and repair. It has been suggested that if [1] Medvedev ZA. An attempt at a rational classification of cells and organisms are exposed to brief periods of theories of ageing. Biol Rev 1990;65:375 – 398.
stress so that their stress response-induced gene [2] Holliday R. Aging is no longer an unsolved problem in expression is upregulated and the related pathways of biology. Ann NY Acad Sci 2006;1067:1 – 9.
[3] Holliday R. Ageing research in the next century. Bioger- maintenance and repair are stimulated, one should observe anti-aging and longevity-promoting effects.
[4] Rattan SIS. Biogerontology: The next step. Ann NY Acad Sci Such a phenomenon in which stimulatory responses to low doses of otherwise harmful conditions improve [5] Rattan SIS. Aging Interventions and Therapies. Singapore: health and enhance lifespan is known as hormesis [6] Rattan SIS. Anti-ageing strategies: Prevention or therapy? Mild stresses that have been reported to delay aging [7] Rattan SIS, Clark BFC. Understanding and modulating and prolong longevity in various systems include ageing. IUBMB Life 2005;57:297 – 304.
[8] Carnes BA, Olshansky SJ, Grahn D. Biological evidence for Aging at molecular level. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic limits to the duration of life. Biogerontology 2003;4:31 – 45.
[9] Kirkwood TBL. Time of Our Lives. London: Weidenfeld & [33] Sohal RS. The free radical theory of aging: A critique. Rev [10] Kirkwood TBL. Evolution of ageing. Mech Ageing Dev [34] Holliday R. Understanding Ageing. Cambridge, UK: Cam- [11] Austad SN. Why We Age. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
[35] Le Bourg E, Fournier D. Is lifespan extension accompanied by improved antioxidant defences? A study of superoxide [12] Rose MR. Will human aging be postponed? Sci Amer 2004; dismutase and catalase in Drosophila melanogaster flies that lived in hypergravity at young age. Biogerontology 2004;5: [13] Martin GM. The Werner mutation: Does it lead to a “public” or “private” mechanism of aging? Mol Med 1997;3: [36] Le Bourg E. Antioxidants and aging in human beings. In: Rattan SIS, editor. Aging Interventions and Therapies.
[14] de Grey ADNJ. The Mitochondrial Free Radical Theory of Singapore: World Scientific Publishers; 2005. in press.
Aging. Austin, TX, USA: R.G. Landes Co. 1999.
[37] Howes RM. The free radical fantasy: A panoply of paradoxes.
[15] Lombard DB, Chua KF, Mostoslavsky R, Franco S, Gostissa Ann NY Acad Sci 2006;1067:22 – 26.
M, Alt FW. DNA repair, genome stability, and aging. Cell [38] Holliday R. The current status of the protein error theory of aging. Exp Gerontol 1996;31:449 – 452.
[16] Wallace DC. A mitochondrial paradigm of metabolic and [39] Rattan SIS. Synthesis, modifications and turnover of proteins degenerative diseases, aging, and cancer: A dawn for during aging. Exp Gerontol 1996;31:33 – 47.
evolutionary medicine. Ann Rev Genet 2005;39:359 – 407.
[40] Fukuda M, Taguchi T, Ohashi M. Age-dependent changes in [17] Loeb LL, Wallace DC, Martin GM. The mitochondrial DNA polymerase fidelity and proofreading activity during theory of aging and its relationship to reactive oxygen species cellular aging. Mech Ageing Dev 1999;109:141– 151.
damage and somatic mtDNA mutations. Proc Natl Acad Sci [41] Srivastava VK, Miller S, Schroeder M, Crouch E, Busbee D.
Activity of DNA polymerase alpha in aging human fibroblasts. Biogerontology 2000;1:201– 216.
[18] Singh KK. Mitochondria damage checkpoint, aging, and [42] Srivatsava VK, Busbee DL. Replicative enzymes and ageing: cancer. Ann NY Acad Sci 2006;1067:182 – 190.
Importance of DNA polymerase alpha function to the events [19] Rattan SIS In: von Zglinicki T, editor. Transcriptional and of cellular ageing. Ageing Res Rev 2002;1:443– 463.
translational dysregulation during aging. Dordrecht: Kluwer [43] Nystro¨m T. Translational fidelity, protein oxidation, and Academic Publishers; 2003. p 179 – 191.
senescence: Lessons from bacteria. Ageing Res Rev 2002;1: [20] Baynes JW. From life to death – the struggle between chemistry and biology during aging: The Maillard reaction [44] Nystro¨m T. Aging in bacteria. Curr Opin Microbiol 2002;5: as an amplifier of genomic damage. Biogerontology 2000; [45] Silar P, Picard M. Increased longevity of EF-1a high-fidelity [21] Grune T. Oxidative stress, aging and the proteasomal system.
mutants in Podospora anserina. J Mol Biol 1994;235: [22] Grune T, Jung T, Merker K, Davies KJA. Decreased [46] Silar P, Rossignol M, Haedens V, Derhy Z, Mazabraud A.
proteolysis caused by protein aggeregates, inclusion bodies, Deletion and dosage modulation of the eEF1A gene in plaques, lipofuscin, ceroid, and “aggresomes” during Podospora anserina: effect on the life cycle. Biogerontology oxidative stress, aging, and disease. Int J Biochem Cell Biol [47] Holbrook MA, Menninger JR. Erythromycin slows aging of [23] Stadtman ER, Levine RL. Free radical-mediated oxidation of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. J Gerontol Biol Sci 2002;57A: free amino acids and amino acid residues in proteins. Amino [48] Kowald A, Kirkwood TBL. Accuracy of tRNA charging and [24] Cloos PA, Christgau S. Post-translational modifications of codon:anticodon recognition; relative importance for cellular proteins: Implications for aging, antigen recognition, and stability. J theor Biol 1993;160:493– 508.
autoimmunity. Biogerontology 2004;5:139 – 158.
[49] Kowald A, Kirkwood TBL. Mitochondrial mutations, [25] Rattan SIS. Translation and post-translational modifications cellular instability and ageing: Modelling the population during aging. In: Macieira-Coelho A, editor. Molecular Basis dynamics of mitochondria. Mutat Res 1993;295:93 – 103.
of Aging. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press; 1995. p 389 – 420.
[50] Hipkiss A. Errors, mitochondrial dysfunction and ageing.
[26] Niki E, Yoshida Y, Saito Y, Noguchi N. Lipid peroxidation: Mechansims, inhibition, and biological effects. Biochem [51] Holliday R. Streptomycin, errors in mitochondria and ageing.
Biophys Res Commun 2005;338:668 – 676.
[27] Suji G, Sivakami S. Glucose, glycation, and aging.
[52] Rattan SIS. Ageing – a biological perspective. Molec Aspects [28] Halle´n A. Accumulation of insoluble protein and aging.
[53] Rattan SIS. Beyond the present crisis in gerontology.
[29] Dukic-Stefanovic S, Schinzel R, Riederer P, Munch G.
[54] Rattan SIS. Gerontogenes: Real or virtual? FASEB J 1995;9: AGES in brain ageing: AGE-inhibitors as neuroprotective and anti-dementia drugs? Biogerontology 2001;2:19 – 34.
[55] Johnson TE. A personal retrospective on the genetics of [30] Stroikin Y, Dalen H, Brunk UT, Terman A. Testing the aging. Biogerontology 2002;3:7 – 12.
“garbage” accumulation theory of aging. mitotic acitivity [56] Martin GM. Genetic modulation of senescent phenotypes in protects cells fom death induced by inhibition of autophagy.
Homo sapiens. Cell 2005;120:523 – 532.
[57] Kenyon C. The plasticity of aging: Insights from long-lived [31] Harman D. Free radical theory of aging: An update. Ann NY [58] Christensen K, Johnson TE, Vaupel JW. The quest for genetic [32] Sitte N, von Zglinicki T. Free radical production and determinants of human longevity: Challenges and insights.
antioxidant defense: A primer. In: von Zglinicki T, editor.
[59] Gelman R, Watson A, Bronson R, Yunis E. Murine [80] Basu S, Srivastava PK. Heat shock proteins: The fountain- chromosomal regions correlated with longevity. Genetics head of innate and adaptive immune responses. Cell Stress & [60] Miller RA, Chrisp C, Jackson AU, Burke D. Marker loci [81] Gutzeit HO. Interaction of stressors and the limits of cellular associated with life span in genetically heterogeneous mice.
homeostasis. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2001;283: J Gerontol Med Sci 1998;53A:M257 – M263.
[61] De Haan G, Gelman R, Watson A, Yunis E, Van Zant G. A putative gene causes variability in lifespan among gentoypi- damage and ageing - an integrative approach. Exp Gerontol cally identical mice. Nat Genet 1998;19:114 – 116.
[62] Puca AA, Daly MJ, Brewster SJ, Matsie TC, Barrett J, Shea- [83] Verbeke P, Fonager J, Clark BFC, Rattan SIS. Heat shock Drinkwater M, Kang S, Joyce E, Nicoli J, Benson E, Kunkel response and ageing: Mechanisms and applications. Cell Biol LM, Perls T. A genome-wide scan for linkage to human exceptional longevity identifies a locus on chromosome 4.
[84] Temple MD, Perrone GG, Dawes IW. Complex cellular Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2001;98:10505 – 10508.
responses to reactive oxygen species. Trends Cell Biol [63] Altomare K, Greco V, Bellizzi D, Berardelli M, Dato S, DeRango F, Garasto S, Rose G, Feraco E, Mari V, Passarino [85] Mary J, Vougier S, Picot CR, Perichon M, Petropoulos I, G, Franceschi C, De Benedictis G. The allele (A)-110 in the Friguet B. Enzymatic reactions involved in the repair of promoter region of the HSP70-1 gene is unfavourable to oxidized proteins. Exp Gerontol 2004;39:1117 – 1123.
longevity in women. Biogerontology 2003;4:215 – 220.
[86] Bre´ge´ge´re F, Milner Y, Friguet B. The ubiquitin-proteasome [64] Tan Q, De Benedictis G, Yashin AI, Bonafe M, DeLuca M, system at the crossroads of stress-response and ageing Valensin S, Vaupel JW, Franceschi C. Measuring the genetic pathways: A handle for skin care? Aging Res Rev 2006;5: influence in modulating the human life span: Gene- environment interaction and the sex-specific genetic effect.
[87] Carrard G, Bulteau AL, Petropoulos I, Friguet B. Impair- ment of proteasome structure and function in aging. Int J [65] Singh R, Kølvraa S, Bross P, Gregersen N, Nexø BA, Biochem Cell Biol 2002;34:1461 – 1474.
Frederiksen H, Christensen K, Rattan SIS. Association [88] Martinez-Vicente M, Sovak G, Cuervo AM. Protein between low self-rated health and heterozygosity for -110A-C degradation and aging. Exp Gerontol 2005;40:622 – 633.
polymorphism in the promoter region of HSP70-1 in aged [89] Halliwell B. The antioxidant paradox. Lancet 2000;355: Danish twins. Biogerontology 2004;5:169 – 176.
[66] Bessenyei B, Marka M, Urban L, Zeher M, Semsei I. Single [90] Azzi A, Davies KJA, Kelly F. Free radical biology - nucleotide polymorphisms: Aging and diseases. Biogerontol- terminology and critical thinking. FEBS Lett 2004;558:3 – 6.
[91] Ray G, Husain SA. Oxidants, antioxidants and carcinogen- [67] Atzmon G, Rincon M, Rabizadeh P, Barzilai N. Biological esis. Ind J Exp Biol 2002;40:1213 – 1232.
evidence for inheritance of exceptional longevity. Mech Age [92] Sen CK, Packer L, Ha¨nninen O. Handbook of Oxidants and Antioxidants in Exercise. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: [68] Rattan SIS. The nature of gerontogenes and vitagenes.
Antiaging effects of repeated heat shock on human [93] Jakoby WB, Ziegler DM. The enzymes of detoxication q.
fibroblasts. Annal NY Acad Sci 1998;854:54 – 60.
J Biol Chem 1990;265:20715 – 20718.
[69] Franceschi C, Olivieri F, Marchegiani F, Cardelli M, [94] Porter TD, Coon MJ. Cytochrome P-450. Multiplicity of Cavallone L, Capri M, Salvioli S, Valensin S, De Benedictis isoforms, substrates, and catalytic and regulatory mechan- G, Di Iorio A, Caruso C, Paolisso G, Monti D. Genes isms. J Biol Chem 1991;266:13469 – 13472.
involved in immune response/inflammation, IGF/insulin [95] Stadtman ER, Arai H, Berlett BS. Protein oxidation by the pathway and response to oxidative stress play a major role cytochrome P450 mixed-function oxidation system. Biochem in the genetics of human longevity: The lesson of Biophys Res Commun 2005;338:432– 436.
centenarians. Mech Age Dev 2005;126:351 – 361.
[96] Janeway CA, Jr. How the immune system works to protect [70] Holliday R. DNA modification to epigenetics. J Genet 1998; the host from infection: A personal view. Proc Natl Acad Sci [71] Lund AH, van Lohuizen M. Epigenetics and cancer. Genes & [97] Aspinall R. Longevity and the immune response. Bioger- [72] Issa JP. Epigenetic variation and human disease. J Nutr 2002; [98] Effros RB. Genetic alterations in the ageing immune system: Impact on infection and cancer. Mech Ageing Dev 2003;124: [73] Bandyopadhyay D, Medrano EE. The emerging role of epigenetics in cellular and organismal aging. Exp Gerontol [99] Padgett RW, Glaser R. How stress influences the immune response. Trends Immunol 2003;24:444 – 448.
[74] Yates FE. Order and complexity in dynamical systems: [100] Pawelec G. Immunosensence and human longevity. Bioger- Homeodynamics as a generalized mechanics for biology.
[101] Ashcroft GS, Mills SJ, Ashwoth JJ. Ageing and wound [75] Schulkin J, editor. Allostasis, homeostasis, and the costs of healing. Bigerontology 2002;3:337 – 345.
adaptation. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press; [102] Jenkins G. Molecular mechanisms of skin ageing. Mech [76] Rattan SIS. Homeostasis, homeodynamics, and aging.
[103] Goldberger AL, Amaral LA, Hausdorff JM, Ivanov P, Peng Encyclopedia of Gerontology 2006; in press.
CK, Stanley HE. Fractal dynamics in physiology: Alterations [77] Lindahl T, Wood RD. Quality control by DNA repair.
with disease and aging. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2002;99: [78] Bohr VA. Repair of oxidative DNA damage in nuclear and [104] Raghothama C, Harsha HC, Prasad CK, Pandey A.
mitochondrial DNA, and some changes with aging in Bioinformatics and proteomics approaches for aging mammalian cells. Free Rad Biol Med 2002;32:804 – 812.
research. Biogerontology 2005;6:227– 232.
¨ rkle A. Physiology and pathophysiology of poly(ADP- [105] Gavrilov LA, Gavrilova NS. The reliability theory of aging ribosyl)ation. BioEssays 2001;23:795 – 806.
and longevity. J Theor Biol 2001;213:527– 545.
[106] Olshansky SJ, Hayflick L, Carnes BA. No truth to the [109] Le Bourg E, Rattan SIS. Can dietary restriction increase fountain of youth. Sci Amer 2002;286:92– 95.
longevity in all species, particularly in human beings? [107] Demetrius L. Calorie restricition, metabolic rate and entropy.
Introduction to a debate among experts. Biogerontology J Gerontol Biol Sci 2004;59A:902 – 915.
[108] Olshansky SJ, Rattan SIS. At the heart of aging: Is it [110] Rattan SIS. Aging intervention, prevention, and therapy metabolic rate or stability? Biogerontology 2005;6:291 – 295.
through hormesis. J Gerontol Biol Sci 2004;59A:705 – 709.

Source: http://www.link-age.eu/Freeradicalresearch-Rattan.pdf

woodcaredirect.co.uk

Issued March 2004 CUPRINOL TRADE LOW ODOUR 5 STAR COMPLETE CT636 WOOD TREATMENT PRODUCT INFORMATION Typical Use Cuprinol Trade Low Odour 5 Star Complete Wood Treatment is a colourless, multi-purpose product for use in the eradication of wood decay, including Dry Rot and all forms of wood-boring insects, it also protects against future attack. For use indoor

Tasc, inc

A Primer on Drug Addiction, Crime, and Treatment Part 4 of 4 in the Series on Disproportionate Incarceration of Minorities for Drug Crimes Illinois Criminal Justice Information Authority This research was supported by Grant # 02-DB-BX-0017 awarded by the Bureau of Justice Assistance, Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Department of Justice, through the Illinois Criminal Justice Information Author

© 2010-2017 Pdf Pills Composition